Introduction and literature review
Intellectual disability is defined as limited intellectual function and learning and deficits in one or more independent living skills (Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, n.d.). Workforce participation for people with disabilities in all age groups is about 22%, much lower than for those without disabilities (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025). Their unemployment rate is twice that of those without disabilities, and about 75% of those eligible were not in the workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2025). Poor personal, social or communication skills and employer attitudes and accommodation costs can be employment barriers; workplace culture is a primary obstacle (Khayatzadeh-Mahani et al., 2020). With the appropriate supports, however, people with intellectual disabilities can work in competitive, integrated settings, working and interacting with employees without disabilities (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities [AAIDD], n.d.).
Students with intellectual disabilities do not achieve the levels of school-to-work transition-related outcomes as their typically developing peers. As adults, even if they gain employment, they are more likely to work part time, receive lower pay, work in non-inclusive settings, and work in jobs that do not match their preferences (Schutz & Carter, 2022). Preparation for their future workforce participation, therefore, should include early school-to-work transition planning for career exploration, goal setting, and exposure to a variety of career opportunities to match their interests (AAIDD, n.d.). Federally funded, state-run vocational rehabilitation centers support these students with federally required pre-employment opportunities, employment transition services, and individualized employment planning to help improve employment outcomes (Taylor et al., 2024). Most states’ vocational rehabilitation plans provide half to almost three-quarters of the recommended evidence-based, employment-related transition services (Whittenburg et al., 2023).
In a qualitative study, youth with intellectual disabilities constructed their identities based on their interests and values, not their disability labels, while aware of disability stigma (Arellano et al., 2026). Therefore, vocational rehabilitation agencies must consider their vocational identities and perceptions of goals and interests. Barriers to employment after school may include lack of support, lack of work experience, and workplace discrimination. Therefore, transition services and pre-employment experiences should be meaningful, tailored to individual aspirations, and emphasize self-confidence and self-advocacy while building job and soft skills (Zidan et al., 2025); employment facilitators can include job coaching support and pre-employment work experiences (Nevala et al., 2019).
Pre-employment transition services
Choosing a job based on personal preference is a promising predictor of future employment and independent living. Pre-employment-related transition planning should, therefore, specifically address the student’s career goals, strengths, and challenges (Mazzotti et al., 2021). A supported, integrated, paid work experience allows students to practice job, social, and communication skills with support from job coaches, assistive technology, and other useful environmental supports (Wehman et al., 2018).
Supported employment in an inclusive workplace with environmental supports promotes individuals’ empowerment and self-determination. In a recent survey of state vocational rehabilitation agency services, however, these were the least commonly provided services (Taylor et al., 2024). In another study, only about three-quarters of state plans included any after school or summer supported, paid work experiences (Whittenburg et al., 2023).
Encouraging autonomy in career exploration and decision-making is frequently part of vocational rehabilitation pre-employment services (Taylor et al., 2024). It can assist students to choose job goals and gain information about jobs that would match their skills and aspirations (Frentzel et al., 2021). Causal Agency Theory posits that assessing personal strengths, capacity, and skills helps individuals personalize their own course of action (Burke et al., 2024).
Pre-employment work experience program length
Reviews of work experience program models noted that programs with the most successful future competitive employment outcomes included
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full immersion and community integration
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respect for employer needs
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job skill instruction
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job coach support
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at least 16 hours of work per week for at least six to 12 months (Avellone et al., 2023; Traina et al., 2023).
Persons completing more sustained vocational rehabilitation and job training services were more likely to find future, sustained, competitive employment (Enticott & Dew, 2026) and, with a longer employment period, possibly learn to overcome barriers and self-advocate. Another review found that shorter-term (six-eight weeks) work experiences might improve transition outcomes (Rooney-Kron & Dymond, 2022), but effect on future employment was not identified (Avellone et al., 2023). Paid part-time, supported, summer on-the-job training and internships did positively affect job satisfaction (Branch, 2024) and work motivation (Myers & Cox, 2020) in other studies.
In person-centered transition planning, vocational rehabilitation center staff can encourage students to be in control of their own career goals and decisions (Zlockie, 2019) while assisting and providing appropriate personalized support systems (Shogren et al., 2017). Participation in work-based learning and career exploration services should support students in making informed choices about their work and careers (AAIDD, n.d.). Students are encouraged to explore and personalize their career choices through supported, integrated, community-based work experiences; however, the most comprehensive experiences and internship models need more time to be effective (Avellone et al., 2023).
Purpose/Research question
How would a short-duration, community-based, summer work experience affect career goals and interests and barriers to career choice in transition-aged students with intellectual disability?
Methods
Participants
After Institutional Board approval [IRB #22025], vocational rehabilitation center administration screens, written consent, parent/guardian written consent, and student participant oral assent, we invited all 50 students participating in a six-week paid, morning career exploration/work-based summer learning program in a Midwestern state to participate in the study. Each had significant limitation in intellectual functioning and at least one adaptive behavior as assessed by participants’ school district Individualized Education Program documentation. The vocational rehabilitation agency director possessed youth names and job sites on a roster and assigned each youth a unique number known only to the agency to protect confidentiality. We also collected age, sex, and code number (to match pre-post) demographic information.
Instrument
We used the My Vocational Situation Scale (MVS) was developed by John L. Holland, Denise C. Gottfredson, and Paul Power … for noncommercial counseling, educational, or research purposes. The MVS contains the Vocational Identity Scale. Typical uses are (a) screening populations or clients to assess the need for vocational assistance, (b) evaluation the outcomes of vocational interventions, and (c) research. With excellent construct validity and excellent test-retest reliability for those with multiple disabilities, the MVS has been used successfully with pre-transition and transition-aged special needs/cognitively impaired students (Holland et al., 1980).
We assessed participants’ pre-post-program change using the Vocational Situation: Vocational Identity Scale (18 true-false items) and Occupational Information/Barriers Scale (8 yes-no items), followed by an open-ended comment section. Higher scores on vocational identity indicate subjects’ stronger and steadier career goals and interest perceptions. Higher scores on Occupational Information/Barriers indicate subjects’ lower perceived barriers to career choice.
Procedure
Participants completed (with appropriate accommodations, if needed) the confidential MVS Scale as an oral interview with the researcher before the start of their first or second workday at their job site.
Student, parent/guardian, and Employment & Community Services staff members met at least once before job site placement to discuss student age, level of career awareness, interests, and work goals (i.e., exploration or specific job skills) and plan choice of job and setting based on student desires, program logistics, needed supports, and resources. This clarified student needs, interests, and working style. Resources included available jobs, work environment and location, physical demands, and safety. Employment & Community Services staff members then contacted potential academic and business partners in a six-town service area for placements matching student preference as closely as possible. Because the service area was small and rural, not all requests aligned directly, but all did match student work goals. Determining final placement and transportation logistics completed the plan.
Student job settings included retail, education, tourism, and recreation and leisure, like other entry-level positions in community-based work experiences where students were employed in janitorial, food service, and shelf stocking (Rooney-Kron & Dymond, 2022). For those who preferred more physically demanding outdoor work using equipment and learning more about landscaping and maintenance, sites included campgrounds, parks, and schools. For those who preferred jobs where they would conduct troubleshooting and learn more about repair, sites included school custodial and maintenance and a park marina. For those who preferred executing the same processes consistently, obtaining instant satisfaction, working individually, and learning more about general janitorial and maintenance, sites included multiple schools. For those who preferred to work as part of a team, interact with the public, practice social skills, and learn about customer service, sites included a grocery store, library, and tourist attractions. For those who preferred to work with and learn more about cars, sites included a car wash and auto detail center. For those who preferred to work with animals and learn more about animal care and grooming, sites included horse farms and barns.
Students rode to and from job sites with vocational rehabilitation center staff, job coaches, or family members. They worked individually or in small groups under the supervision of a trained job coach or coaches (and with other necessary accommodations) on weekdays from 8:00 am until noon. The 17 job coaches were college students with interests or majors in disability studies, education, or special education. They attended a three-day, agency-sponsored orientation and training that included instruction in the overall program goals and organization, background for understanding intellectual disability, providing person-centered supports to help students with soft skills, job tasks, and motivation; and strategies to work with employers for overcoming workplace barriers or problems.
Job coaching is considered an accommodation, but some students needed additional assistive technology support including task management, prompting, and reminders on their phone apps. Students worked with their job coaches in different settings and with different job tasks practicing their job and soft skills to meet their personalized work goals.
After completion of their last or second to last workdays at their job sites, participants completed (with appropriate accommodations, if needed) the confidential MVS Scale as an oral interview with the researcher.
Analysis
We calculated sum scores for Vocational Identity, Occupational Information, and Barriers Scales using paired samples t-tests to evaluate whether participants’ vocational situations were enhanced after participating in the program. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Given the small sample size, we used Fisher’s exact tests to analyze individual categorical survey items to determine significant association in responses pre- and post- participation in the program, and calculated odds ratios to determine strength of association for items found to be significant.
Results
Demographics. Fifty students completed both pre- and post-scales. Thirty-one (62%) were males, 19 (38%) females, all were White, and all were between the ages of 16 and 19.
Vocational Identity and Occupational Information/Barriers scores. Results indicated Vocational Identity mean scores increased significantly after participating in the program (t(49) = -5.591, p< .001). The Occupational Information/Barriers scores were higher post-program participation; however, they were not significant. See Table 1.
Individual survey item scores and post-survey open comments. Significantly more individuals responded “false” in post-survey to two statements: “I am uncertain about the occupations I could perform well” (OR = 2.42, 95% CI [1.09, 5.35], p = .032) and “I am not sure of myself in many areas of life” (OR = 3.27, 95% CI [1.43, 7.50], p = .005).
In the post-survey open comments section, five participants noted that they learned some skills, and 10 participants indicated that they enjoyed the program. For example, participants noted: “I’ve learned stuff about the workforce that could be useful in a job.” “It’s pretty good. Learned how to deal with people I don’t like.” “I’ve had so much fun here.” “Fun job, try new things, seek the park, really fun and meet new people.”
Conclusions
With appropriate supports, people with intellectual disabilities can work in competitive, integrated employment (AAIDD, n.d.). Previous long-term interventions for career planning and vocational decision-making for people with disabilities have shown some promising results (Avellone et al., 2023), although more research in this area has been recommended (Uyanik et al., 2017). The current study aimed to fill those gaps by examining vocational situation, specifically vocational identity and occupational information/barriers, in transition-aged students with intellectual disabilities in a shorter-term program. Although the work-based summer learning program was only half-day for several weeks, student program participants reported significantly increased perception of vocational identity, a stronger and steadier perception of career goals and interests.
However, due to study design, this result should be interpreted with caution. We cannot conclude that the short-term program directly affected participants’ vocational identity, only their perceptions of that identity. For future study, a longitudinal follow-up with a more rigorous design to evaluate whether the change was sustained or if short-term programs affect future employment (Avellone et al., 2023) would be instructive.
In this program, student participants, parents/guardians, and vocational rehabilitation agency staff met together pre-program to choose job placement. Vocational rehabilitation programs encourage autonomy in vocational decision-making by focusing career exploration programs on student strengths and goals (Frentzel et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2024). This encouragement to choose their own career goals as well as provision of personalized job supports should enable the student to make an informed choice of vocation (AAIDD, n.d.; Mazzotti et al., 2021) which may lead to improved chance of employment in their future (Mazzotti et al., 2021). Supported employment experiences are also predictors of future employment in this population (Mazzotti et al., 2021).
Participants also reported lower perceived barriers to career choice post-program; however, the differences were not significant. Interestingly, many state vocational rehabilitation agencies do not provide supported employment programs for transition-aged youth (Taylor et al., 2024) or include supported summer career exploration programming (Whittenburg et al., 2023). The agency in the current study, though, provided both.
With environmental supports like job coaching, assistive technology, and other tailored supports such as transportation, if needed, program participants in the current study were able to practice job and social skills in an inclusive, supported setting. Participants may have felt more confident and empowered, therefore, perceiving fewer barriers to job choices, e.g., communication, stigma, transportation, and lack of accommodations.
Lack of statistically significant differences may have been due to the short time frame of the summer program. For example, first half questions in the Occupational Information/Barriers Scales survey section focused on participant need for information on finding a job or job training; this was more likely to improve as participants completed the short-term program. The second half of the questions focused on support for career choice and the need for money for education or training; these are less likely to improve during a short program.
Small sample size, exploratory study design, and self-report survey methodology, however, limits result generalizability and interpretation. Social desirability bias may have influenced participants to provide what they believed were acceptable answers. Input from additional stakeholders like job coaches or employers could have been added for more reliability. The survey questions and environment may have also affected responses. We used only yes/no and true/false questions to reduce misunderstanding, orally with the option of clarification if the participants did not understand a question, and we provided any accommodations needed. We presented the survey to the participants privately in a separate room away from their workstations, with no coach or employer present.
Implications for Research and Practice
By providing supported experiences and student participant input into job choice, the program in the current study may have contributed to improved participant perceptions of certainty in careers they felt they could do well in and in their increased personal confidence as indicated in the individual survey item scores. For example, although most participants did not wish to add any comments upon completion of the post-survey, for those who did, they mentioned learning useful job skills and having fun on the job. Whether they were participating in the job they wanted to do in the future or not, working in the program gave them an idea of jobs they could easily perform. Participants were able to identify tasks that were easy and enjoyable, and we hope that they will apply that knowledge to future career choices.
This study cautiously suggests that given both autonomy in job choice (to make an informed vocational choice) and supported experiences (to strengthen self-determination), even in a short, paid, work program; transition-aged students with intellectual disabilities can strengthen their perceived vocational identity, possibly improving chances of future employment. Future research should next go beyond this exploratory stage and use a more rigorous design in larger studies. If larger studies replicate our results, agencies that do not offer paid, supported work experiences or do not offer such programs during the summer or after school as a standard service (Taylor et al., 2024; Whittenburg et al., 2023) may conclude that adding a program like this one may be a viable, cost-effective, career exploration option.